Effectiveness of Inexpensive Cloth Facemasks and Their Amendments to Reduce Ambient Particulate Exposures: A Case of Kathmandu, Nepal.

Inexpensive cloth masks are widely used to reduce particulate exposures, but their use became ubiquitous after the outbreak of COVID-19. A custom experimental setup (semiactive at 5.1 m/s airflow rate) was fabricated to examine the efficiency of different types of commercial facemasks collected randomly from street vendors. The sample (N = 27) including (n = 16) cloth masks (CMs), (n = 7) surgical masks (SMs), and (n = 4) N95 filtering facepiece respirators (FFRs), of which SMs and N95 FFRs taken as a standard for efficiency comparison were all tested against ambient aerosols (PM2.5 and PM10 µg/m3). The prototype cloth masks (PTCMs) (N = 5) design was tailored, and their performance was assessed and compared with that of standard commercial masks. The filtering efficiency tested against ambient coarse particulates (PM10) ranged from (5% to 34%) for CMs with an average of 16%, (37% to 46%) for SMs with an average of 42%, (59% to 72%) for PTCMs with an average of 65%, and (70% to 75%) for N95 FFRs with an average of 71%, whereas against fine particulates (PM2.5), efficacy ranged from (4% to 29%) for CMs with an average of 13%, (34% to 44%) for SMs with an average of 39%, (53% to 68%) for PTCMs with an average of 60%, and (68% to 73%) for N95 FFRs with an average of 70%, respectively. The efficiency followed the order N95 FFRs > PTCMs > SMs > CMs showing poor exposure reduction potential in CMs and high exposure reduction potential in N95 FFRs and PTCMs. Amendment in existing CMs using eco-friendly cotton fabric with better facial adherence can protect human health from exposure to fine particulates <2.5 µm and can reduce the risk of micro-plastic pollution caused by polypropylene (PP) facemasks.

Titanium dioxide particles frequently present in face masks intended for general use require regulatory control.

Although titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a suspected human carcinogen when inhaled, fiber-grade TiO2 (nano)particles were demonstrated in synthetic textile fibers of face masks intended for the general public. STEM-EDX analysis on sections of a variety of single use and reusable face masks visualized agglomerated near-spherical TiO2 particles in non-woven fabrics, polyester, polyamide and bi-component fibers. Median sizes of constituent particles ranged from 89 to 184 nm, implying an important fraction of nano-sized particles (< 100 nm). The total TiO2 mass determined by ICP-OES ranged from 791 to 152,345 µg per mask. The estimated TiO2 mass at the fiber surface ranged from 17 to 4394 µg, and systematically exceeded the acceptable exposure level to TiO2 by inhalation (3.6 µg), determined based on a scenario where face masks are worn intensively. No assumptions were made about the likelihood of the release of TiO2 particles itself, since direct measurement of release and inhalation uptake when face masks are worn could not be assessed. The importance of wearing face masks against COVID-19 is unquestionable. Even so, these results urge for in depth research of (nano)technology applications in textiles to avoid possible future consequences caused by a poorly regulated use and to implement regulatory standards phasing out or limiting the amount of TiO2 particles, following the safe-by-design principle.

Evaluation of Respiratory Emissions During Labor and Delivery: Potential Implications for Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).

OBJECTIVE: To characterize respiratory emissions produced during labor and vaginal delivery vis-à-vis the potential for transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). METHODS: Observational study of three women who tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 and had uncomplicated vaginal deliveries. Using background-oriented schlieren imaging, we evaluated the propagation of respiratory emissions produced during the labor course and delivery. The primary outcome was the speed and propagation of breath over time, calculated through processed images collected throughout labor and delivery. RESULTS: In early labor with regular breathing, the speed of the breath was 1.37 meters/s (range 1.20-1.55 meters/s). The breath appeared to propagate faster with a cough during early labor at a speed of 1.69 meters/s (range 1.22-2.27 meters/s). During the second stage of labor with Valsalva and forced expiration, the propagation speed was 1.79 meters/s (range 1.71-1.86 meters/s). CONCLUSION: Labor and vaginal delivery increase the propagation of respiratory emissions that may increase risk of respiratory transmission of SARS-CoV-2.

Phthalate esters in face masks and associated inhalation exposure risk.

This study assessed the composition of single-use face mask materials, quantified the concentration of phthalate esters in masks and evaluated associated inhalation exposure risk. All the mask samples, including 12 surgical and four N95/P1/P2 masks, were identified to be made of polypropylene, with polyethylene terephthalate present in the N95/P1/P2 masks. Di-methyl phthalate, di-n-butyl phthalate, di-ethyl phthalate, di-isobutyl phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate were frequently detected and their concentration summed up 55 ± 35 ~ 1700 ± 140 ng per surgical mask and 2300 ± 150 ~ 5200 ± 800 ng per N95/P1/P2 mask. Our simulation experiment suggested a mean loss of 13 - 71% of phthalate mass depending on compounds, during 5-hour wearing of these masks. This resulted in an estimated daily intake of individual compounds no higher than 20 ng/kg/day for adults and 120 ng/kg/day for toddlers, which were at least 80 times lower compared to relevant tolerable daily intake values. Two interventional trials were conducted where a volunteer wore a mask for four hours and urine samples were collected before and after the mask wearing. No obvious increase was observed for the urinary concentration of any phthalate metabolite, indicating minimal contribution to overall exposure to phthalate esters.

Characterization of performance and disinfection resilience of nonwoven filter materials for use in 3D-printed N95 respirators.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a high demand for respiratory protection among health care workers in hospitals, especially surgical N95 filtering facepiece respirators (FFRs). To aid in alleviating that demand, a survey of commercially available filter media was conducted to determine whether any could serve as a substitute for an N95 FFR while held in a 3D-printed mask (Stopgap Surgical Face Mask from the NIH 3D Print Exchange). Fourteen filter media types and eight combinations were evaluated for filtration efficiency, breathing resistance (pressure drop), and liquid penetration. Additional testing was conducted to evaluate two filter media disinfection methods in the event that the filters were reused in a hospital setting. Efficiency testing was conducted in accordance with the procedures established for approving an N95 FFR. One apparatus used a filter-holding device and another apparatus employed a manikin head to which the 3D-printed mask could be sealed. The filter media and combinations exhibited collection efficiencies varied between 3.9% and 98.8% when tested with a face velocity comparable to that of a standard N95 FFR at the 85 L min-1 used in the approval procedure. Breathing resistance varied between 10.8 to >637 Pa (1.1 to > 65 mm H2O). When applied to the 3D-printed mask efficiency decreased by an average of 13% and breathing resistance increased 4-fold as a result of the smaller surface area of the filter media when held in that mask compared to that of an N95 FFR. Disinfection by dry heat, even after 25 cycles, did not significantly affect filter efficiency and reduced viral infectivity by > 99.9%. However, 10 cycles of 59% vaporized H2O2 significantly (p < 0.001) reduced filter efficiency of the media tested. Several commercially available filter media were found to be potential replacements for the media used to construct the typical cup-like N95 FFR. However, their use in the 3D-printed mask demonstrated reduced efficiency and increased breathing resistance at 85 L min-1.

Impact of a long-term air pollution exposure on the case fatality rate of COVID-19 patients-A multicity study.

Evidence in the literature suggests that air pollution exposure affects outcomes of patients with COVID-19. However, the extent of this effect requires further investigation. This study was designed to investigate the relationship between long-term exposure to air pollution and the case fatality rate (CFR) of patients with COVID-19. The data on air quality index (AQI), PM2.5, PM10, SO2 , NO2 , and O3 from 14 major cities in China in the past 5 years (2015-2020) were collected, and the CRF of COVID-19 patients in these cities was calculated. First, we investigated the correlation between CFR and long-term air quality indicators. Second, we examined the air pollutants affecting CFR and evaluated their predictive values. We found a positive correlation between the CFR and AQI (1, 3, and 5 years), PM2.5 (1, 3, and 5 years), and PM10 (1, 3, and 5 years). Further analysis indicated the more significant correlation for both AQI (3 and 5 years) and PM2.5 (1, 3, and 5 years) with CFR, and moderate predictive values for air pollution indicators such as AQI (1, 3, and 5 years) and PM2.5 (1, 3, and 5 years) for CFR. Our results indicate that long-term exposure to severe air pollution is associated with higher CFR of COVID-19 patients. Air pollutants such as PM2.5 may assist with the prediction of CFR for COVID-19 patients.

The critical importance of mask seals on respirator performance: An analytical and simulation approach.

Filtering facepiece respirators (FFRs) and medical masks are widely used to reduce the inhalation exposure of airborne particulates and biohazardous aerosols. Their protective capacity largely depends on the fraction of these that are filtered from the incoming air volume. While the performance and physics of different filter materials have been the topic of intensive study, less well understood are the effects of mask sealing. To address this, we introduce an approach to calculate the influence of face-seal leakage on filtration ratio and fit factor based on an analytical model and a finite element method (FEM) model, both of which take into account time-dependent human respiration velocities. Using these, we calculate the filtration ratio and fit factor for a range of ventilation resistance values relevant to filter materials, 500-2500 Pa∙s∙m-1, where the filtration ratio and fit factor are calculated as a function of the mask gap dimensions, with good agreement between analytical and numerical models. The results show that the filtration ratio and fit factor are decrease markedly with even small increases in gap area. We also calculate particle filtration rates for N95 FFRs with various ventilation resistances and two commercial FFRs exemplars. Taken together, this work underscores the critical importance of forming a tight seal around the face as a factor in mask performance, where our straightforward analytical model can be readily applied to obtain estimates of mask performance.

COVID-19: Performance study of microplastic inhalation risk posed by wearing masks.

Wearing face masks has become the new normal worldwide due to the global spread of the coronavirus disease 2019. The inhalation of microplastics due to the wearing of masks has rarely been reported. The present study used different types of commonly used masks to conduct breathing simulation experiments and investigate microplastic inhalation risk. Microplastic inhalation caused by reusing masks that underwent various treatment processes was also tested. Results implied that wearing masks considerably reduces the inhalation risk of particles (e.g., granular microplastics and unknown particles) even when they are worn continuously for 720 h. Surgical, cotton, fashion, and activated carbon masks wearing pose higher fiber-like microplastic inhalation risk, while all masks generally reduced exposure when used under their supposed time (<4 h). N95 poses less fiber-like microplastic inhalation risk. Reusing masks after they underwent different disinfection pretreatment processes can increase the risk of particle (e.g., granular microplastics) and fiber-like microplastic inhalation. Ultraviolet disinfection exerts a relatively weak effect on fiber-like microplastic inhalation, and thus, it can be recommended as a treatment process for reusing masks if proven effective from microbiological standpoint. Wearing an N95 mask reduces the inhalation risk of spherical-type microplastics by 25.5 times compared with not wearing a mask.

Investigation of the protection efficacy of face shields against aerosol cough droplets.

Simple plastic face shields have numerous practical advantages over regular surgical masks. In light of the spreading COVID-19 pandemic, the potential of face shields as a substitution for surgical masks was investigated. In order to determine the efficacy of the protective equipment we used a cough simulator. The protective equipment considered was placed on a manikin head that simulated human breathing. Concentration and size distribution of small particles that reached the manikin respiration pathways during the few tens of seconds following the cough event were monitored. Additionally, water sensitive papers were taped on the tested protective equipment and the manikin face. In the case of frontal exposure, for droplet diameter larger than 3 µm, the shield efficiency in blocking cough droplets was found to be comparable to that of regular surgical masks, with enhanced protection for portions of the face that the mask does not cover. Additionally, for finer particles, down to 0.3 µm diameter, a shield blocked about 10 times more fine particles than the surgical mask. When exposure from the side was considered, the performance of the shield was found to depend dramatically on its geometry. While a narrow shield allowed more droplets and aerosol to penetrate in comparison to a mask under the same configuration, a slightly wider shield significantly improved the performance. The source control potential of shields was also investigated. A shield, and alternatively, a surgical mask, were placed on the cough simulator, while the breathing simulator, situated 60 cm away in the jet direction, remained totally exposed. In both cases, no droplets or particles were found in the vicinity of the breathing simulator. Conducted experiments were limited to short time periods after expiratory events, and do not include longer time ranges associated with exposure to suspended aerosol. Thus, additional evidence regarding the risk posed by floating aerosol is needed to establish practical conclusions regarding actual transmittance reduction potential of face shields and surgical face masks.